BAB II
Pembahasan

A. Vocabulary
A person's vocabulary is the set of words they are familiar with in a language. A vocabulary usually grows and evolves with age, and serves as a useful and fundamental tool for communication and acquiring knowledge.
1) Knowing and using a word
A vocabulary is defined as "all the words known and used by a particular person". However, the words known and used by a particular person do not constitute all the words a person is exposed to. By definition, a vocabulary includes the last two categories of this list:
1. Never encountered the word.
2. Heard the word, but cannot define it.
3. Recognize the word due to context or tone of voice.
4. Able to use the word but cannot clearly explain it.
5. Fluent with the word – its use and definition.
2) Types of vocabulary
Listed in order of most ample to most limited:
1. Reading vocabulary
A person's reading vocabulary is all the words he or she can recognize when reading. This is the largest type of vocabulary simply because it includes the other three.
2. Listening vocabulary
A person's listening vocabulary is all the words he or she can recognize when listening to speech. This vocabulary is aided in size by context and tone of voice.
3. Writing vocabulary
A person's writing vocabulary is all the words he or she can employ in writing. Contrary to the previous two vocabulary types, the writing vocabulary is stimulated by its user.
4. Speaking vocabulary
A person's speaking vocabulary is all the words he or she can use in speech. Due to the spontaneous nature of the speaking vocabulary, words are often misused. This misuse – though slight and unintentional – may be compensated by facial expressions, tone of voice, or hand gestures.
B. Focal vocabulary
"Focal vocabulary" is a specialized set of terms and distinctions that is particularly important to a certain group; those with particular focuses of experience or activity. A lexicon, or vocabulary, is a language's dictionary, its set of names for things, events, and ideas. Some linguists believe that lexicon influences people's perception on things, the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis. For example, the Nuer of Sudan have an elaborate vocabulary to describe cattle. The Nuer have dozens of names for cattle because of the cattle's particular histories, economies, and environments. This kind of comparison has elicited some linguistic controversy, as with the number of "Eskimo words for snow". English speakers can also elaborate their snow and cattle vocabularies when the need arises.
C. Vocabulary growth
Initially, in the infancy phase, vocabulary growth requires no effort. Infants hear words and mimic them, eventually associating them with objects and actions. This is the listening vocabulary. The speaking vocabulary follows, as a child's thoughts become more reliant on its ability to express itself without gestures and mere sounds. Once the reading and writing vocabularies are attained – through questions and education – the anomalies and irregularities of language can be discovered.
In first grade, an advantaged student (i.e. a literate student) knows about twice as many words as a disadvantaged student. Generally, this gap does not tighten. This translates into a wide range of vocabulary size by age five or six, at which time an English-speaking child will know about 2,500–5,000 words. An average student learns some 3,000 words per year, or approximately eight words per day. After leaving school, vocabulary growth plateaus. People may then expand their vocabularies by reading, playing word games, participating in vocabulary programs, etc.
D. Passive vs. active vocabulary
Even if we learn a word, it takes a lot of practice and context connections for us to learn it well. A rough grouping of words we understand when we hear them encompasses our "passive" vocabulary, whereas our "active" vocabulary is made up of words that come to our mind immediately when we have to use them in a sentence, as we speak. In this case, we often have to come up with a word in the timeframe of milliseconds, so one has to know it well, often in combinations with other words in phrases, where it is commonly used.


E. The importance of a vocabulary
• An extensive vocabulary aids expressions and communication
• Vocabulary size has been directly linked to reading comprehension.[8]
• Linguistic vocabulary is synonymous with thinking vocabulary[9]
• A person may be judged by others based on his or her vocabulary
F. Native- and foreign-language vocabulary
a. Native-language vocabulary
Native speakers' vocabularies vary widely within a language, and are especially dependent on the level of the speaker's education. A 1995 study estimated the vocabulary size of college-educated speakers at about 17,000 word families[clarification needed], and that of first-year college students (high-school educated) at about 12,000.
b. Foreign-language vocabulary
a. The effects of vocabulary size on language comprehension
Francis and Kucera studied texts totaling one million words and found that if one knows the words with the highest frequency, they will quickly know most of the words in a text:


Vocabulary Size Written Text Coverage
0 words 0%
1000 72.0
2000 79.7
3000 84.0
4000 86.8
5000 88.7
6000 89.9
15,851 97.8

By knowing the 2000 words with the highest frequency, one would know 80% of the words in those texts. The numbers look even better than this if we want to cover the words we come across in an informally spoken context. Then the 2000 most common words would cover 96% of the vocabulary. These numbers should be encouraging to beginning language learners, especially because the numbers in the table are for word lemmas and knowing that many word families would give even higher coverage.
b. Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition
Learning vocabulary is one of the first steps of learning a second language, yet one never reaches the last step of vocabulary acquisition[clarification needed]. Whether in one’s native language or a second language, the acquisition of new vocabulary is a continuous process. Many methods can help one acquire new vocabulary.


c. Memorization
Although memorization can be seen as tedious or boring, associating one word in the native language with the corresponding word in the second language until memorized is still one of the best methods of vocabulary acquisition. By the time students reach adulthood, they generally gather a number of personalized memorization methods. Although many argue that memorization does not typically require the complex cognitive processing that increase retention (Sagarra & Alba, 2006), it does typically require a plethora of repetition. Other methods typically require more time and longer to recall.
Some words cannot be easily linked through association or other methods. When a word in the second language is phonologically or visually similar to a word in the native language, one often assumes they also share similar meanings. Though this is frequently the case, it is not always true. When faced with a false cognate, memorization and repetition are the keys to mastery. If a second language learner relies solely on word associations to learn new vocabulary, that person will have a very difficult time mastering false cognates. When large amounts of vocabulary must acquired in a limited amount of time, when the learners needs to recall information quickly, when words represent abstract concepts or are difficult to create as a mental image, or when discriminating between false cognates, rote memorization is the method to use.
d. The Keyword Method
One useful method to build vocabulary in a second language is the keyword method. When additional time is available or one wants to emphasize a few key words, one can create mnemonic devices or word associations. Although these strategies tend to take longer to implement and make take longer in recollection, they create new or unusual connections that can increase retention. The keyword method requires deeper cognitive processing, thus increasing the likelihood of retention (Sagarra & Alba, 2006). This method uses fits within Paivio’s (1986)[14] dual coding theory because it uses both two verbal and image memory systems. However, this method should be used only with words that represent concrete and imageable things. Abstract concepts or words that do not bring a distinct image to mind are difficult to associate. In addition, studies have shown that associative vocabulary learning is more successful with younger aged students (Sagarra & Alba, 2006)[13]. As students advance and age, they tend to rely less on creating word associations to remember vocabulary.
G. Basic English vocabulary
Several word lists have been developed to provide people with a limited vocabulary either quick language proficiency or an effective means of communication. In 1930, Charles Kay Ogden created Basic English (850 words). Other lists include Simplified English (1000 words) and Special English (1500 words). The General Service List, 2000 high frequency words compiled by Michael West from a 5,000,000 word corpus, has been used to create a number of adapted reading texts for English language learners. Knowing 2000 English words, one could understand quite a lot of English, and even read a lot of simple material without problems.
H. Vocabulary differences between social classes in the U.S.A.
James Flynn reports the remarkable differences in vocabulary exposure of pre-schoolers between different classes in the U.S.A. Apparently, pre-schoolers of professional families are typically exposed to 2,150 different words, pre-schoolers from working class families to 1,250 words, while those from households on welfare just 620.[16]

Kesimpulan

Vocabulary memiliki banyak tipe dan macam-macam kegunaannya, juga banyak pemanfaatannya. Kita harus lebih belajar tentang Vocabulary karena banyaknya tipe yang sangat rumit.

Ciri-ciri kalimat efektif:

1. Kesatuan Gagasan
Memiliki subyek,predikat, serta unsur-unsur lain ( obyek atau keterangan) yang saling mendukung serta membentuk kesaruan tunggal. Di dalam keputusan itu merupakan kebijaksanaan yang dapat membantu keselamatan umum. Kalimat ini tidak memiliki kesatuan karena tidak didukung subyek. Unsur di dalam keputusan itu bukanlah subyek, melainkan keterangan. Ciri bahwa unsur itu merupakan keterangan ditandai oleh keberadaan frase depan di dalam (ini harus dihilangkan)
2. Kesejajaran
Memiliki kesamaan bentukan/imbuhan. Jika bagian kalimat itu menggunakan kata kerja berimbuhan di-, bagian kalimat yang lainnya pun harus menggunakan di- pula. Kakak menolong anak itu dengan dipapahnya ke pinggir jalan. Kalimat tersebut tidak memiliki kesejajaran antara predikat-predikatnya. Yang satu menggunakan predikat aktif, yakni imbuhan me-, sedang yang satu lagi menggunakan predikat pasif, yakni menggunakan imbuhan di-.
Kalimat itu harus diubah :
Kakak menolong anak itu dengan memapahnya ke pinggir jalan
Anak itu ditolong kakak dengan dipapahnya ke pinggir jalan.
3. Kehematan
Kalimat efektif tidak boleh menggunakan kata-kata yang tidak perlu. Kata-kata yang berlebih. Penggunaan kata yang berlebih hanya akan mengaburkan maksud kalimat.
Bunga-bunga mawar, anyelir, dan melati sangat disukainya. Pemakaian kata bunga-bunga dalam kalimat di atas tidak perlu. Dalam kata mawar,anyelir,dan melati terkandung makna bunga.
Kalimat yang benar adalah:
Mawar,anyelir, dan melati sangat disukainya.
4. Penekanan
Kalimat yang dipentingkan harus diberi penekanan.
Caranya:
• Mengubah posisi dalam kalimat, yakni dengan cara meletakkan bagian yang penting di depan kalimat.
Contoh :
1. Harapan kami adalah agar soal ini dapat kita bicarakan lagi pada kesempatan lain
2. Pada kesempatan lain, kami berharap kita dapat membicarakan lagi soal ini.
• Menggunakan partikel; penekanan bagian kalimat dapat menggunakan partikel –lah, -pun, dan
–kah.
Contoh :
1. Saudaralah yang harus bertanggung jawab dalam soal itu.
2. Kami pun turut dalam kegiatan itu.
3. Bisakah dia menyelesaikannya?
• Menggunakan repetisi, yakni dengan mengulang-ulang kata yang dianggap penting.
Contoh :
Dalam membina hubungan antara suami istri, antara guru dan murid, antara orang tua dan anak, antara pemerintah dan rakyat, diperlukan adanya komunikasi dan sikap saling memahami antara satu dan lainnya.
• Menggunakan pertentangan, yakni menggunakan kata yang bertentangan atau berlawanan makna/maksud dalam bagian kalimat yang ingin ditegaskan.
Contoh :
1. Anak itu tidak malas, tetapi rajin.
2. Ia tidak menghendaki perbaikan yang sifatnya parsial, tetapi total dan menyeluruh.
5. Kelogisan
Kalimat efektif harus mudah dipahami. Dalam hal ini hubungan unsur-unsur dalam kalimat harus memiliki hubungan yang logis/masuk akal.
Contoh :
Waktu dan tempat saya persilakan.
Kalimat ini tidak logis/tidak masuk akal karena waktu dan tempat adalah benda mati yang tidak dapat dipersilakan. Kalimat tersebut harus diubah misalnya ;
Bapak penceramah, saya persilakan untuk naik ke podium.


Contoh kalimat efektif :
1) Kalimat tidak efektif : Penyusunan laporan penelitian itu saya dibantu oleh para dosen-dosen
Kalimat efektif : Dalam menyusun laporan penelitian, saya di bantu oleh para dosen.
2) Kalimat tidak efektif : semua hewan-hewan yang melahirkan dan juga menyusui adalah termasuk kelas mamalia
Kalimat efektif : semua hewan yang melahirkan dan menyusui termasuk kelas mamalia
3) Kalimat tidak efektif : daun yang hanya memiliki tangkai dan helaian daunnya saja adalah merupakan daun bertangkai
Kalimat efektif : daun yang hanya memiliki tangkai dan helaian daun merupakan daun bertangkai
4) Kalimat tidak efektif : cahaya matahari sangat dibutuhkan tumbuhan agar supaya tumbuhan dapat melakukan fotosintesis
Kalimat efektif : cahaya matahari sangat dibutuhkan tumbuhan agar dapat melakukan fotosintesis

Kata pengantar

Puji syukur kehadirat Tuhan Yang Maha Esa, atas nikmat dan karunia yang diberikan kepada kita semua. Atas nikmat tersebut akhirnya penyusun dapat menyelesaikan makalah ini dengan judul “Vocabulary”.

Penyusun merasa masih banyak pemahaman yang kurang, oleh karena itu penyusun meminta kritik dan saran agar makalah ini menjadi sempurna dan bermanfaat bagi pembaca.

Ciamis, Januari 2010

Penyusun

Daftar isi

Kata pengantar................................................................................................... I

Daftar isi

BAB I PENDAHULUAN

A. Latar belakang masalah.............................................................................. 1

B. Batasan masalah........................................................................................ 1

C. Tujuan pembuatan makalah........................................................................ 1

BAB II PEMBAHASAN

A. Vocabulary................................................................................................ 2

B. Focal vocabulary....................................................................................... 3

C. Vocabulary growth.................................................................................... 4

D. Passive vs. active vocabulary..................................................................... 4

E. The importance of a vocabulary................................................................. 5

F. Native- and foreign-language vocabulary.................................................... 5

G. Basic English vocabulary............................................................................ 8

H. Vocabulary differences between social classes in the U.S.A........................ 8

JAKARTA, — Gelombang ultrasonik ternyata bisa membunuh serangga, salah satunya adalah nyamuk demam berdarah atau aedes aegypti.

Pancaran gelombang ini dengan kekuatan 30 KHz hingga 100 KHz secara terus-menerus dalam ruangan akan mengakibatkan terganggunya fungsi antena pada nyamuk yang berfungsi sebagai indra penerima rangsang.

"Nyamuk akan merasa tidak nyaman dan terganggu keseimbangannya hingga akhirnya mati," kata I Wayan Teguh Wibawan, Dekan Fakultas Kedokteran Hewan Institut Pertanian Bogor (IPB), dalam kesempatan peluncuran AC LG Terminator di Jakarta, Rabu (19/8).

LG, perusahaan elektronik, melakukan riset bersama ITB untuk menggabungkan teknologi gelombang ultrasonik ini ke dalam AC. Hasilnya adalah AC LG Terminator. "Kami telah melakukan riset sejak 2007," katanya.

Lebih lanjut, Wayan menuturkan bahwa percobaan dilakukan dengan melepaskan nyamuk-nyamuk aedes aegypti berjenis kelamin betina (strain liverpool) berumur 4-5 hari. Pada saat yang sama, dalam ruangan tersebut AC Terminator memancarkan gelombang ultrasonik.

Pengujian dilakukan dalam ruang pengujian standar penelitian insektisida dari Lembaga Kesehatan Dunia (WHO). "Hasilnya, gelombang ultrasonik mampu membunuh lebih dari 70 persen nyamuk yang ada di dalam ruangan dalam tempo 24 jam," ujar Wayan.

Produk yang baru dilepas di Indonesia ini dibandrol Rp 4,5 juta per unit. "Harga ini tidak mahal kalau dilihat benefit yang diterima. Misalnya melindungi keluarga kita dari nyamuk demam berdarah," kata Budi Setiawan, Direktur Penjualan LG Elektronik Indonesia.

Ia pun menganjurkan, supaya hemat energi, sebaiknya AC cukup distel pada suhu kamar 25-27 derajat celcius. "Kalau pergi, dimatikan saja AC-nya. Namun, fungsi gelombang ultrasoniknya bisa diaktifkan karena berdiri terpisah," tandas Budi.